Inflammation of the middle ear is an infection caused by a germ (bacterium). It is very common among children. The middle ear is an air-filled hollow between the eardrum and the inner ear. The Eustachian tube - an air channel between the middle ear and the nose - usually ensures that the middle ear is ventilated and that fluids can run out through the nose.


Middle ear infection most commonly occurs following a cold. It also frequently occurs as a result of contact with other children. Middle ear infection (called otitis media) is an infection behind the eardrum. Ear infections are very common and are usually painful. By the age of six, most children have grown out of middle ear infections and are not likely to suffer long-term problems.

Symptoms

In otitis media, inflammation occurs on that portion of the ear, which is directly behind the eardrum. This pain in the ear is usually of a piercing type and is not attended with fever. Pus is discharged into the outer ear. As the condition progresses, the inner ear becomes seriously affected, and hearing is considerably impaired.

Acute middle ear infection is most common in children. It is caused by a bacterial or viral infection of the fluid of the middle ear. When infection occurs in the middle ear, pus or excess fluid is produced. Ear infections are often associated with respiratory infections or with blocked sinuses caused by allergies or enlarged adenoids.

Causes

A cold or other infection of the upper airways causes the tubes which drain the ears in to the back of the throat to become swollen and filled with mucus or catarrh. These tubes are called eustachian tubes, and are the tubes we open, by yawning or swallowing, to stop our ears popping as we go up a hill or in a plane. This swelling may block the eustachian tubes, and stop the normal drainage of fluid from the middle ear down to the back of the throat. As water which is stagnant becomes foul, so there is more chance of germs building up in this stagnant situation in the middle ear, and a middle ear infection (acute otitis media) is the result.

Ear infections also can be associated with dysfunction or swelling within the eustachian tubes — the narrow passageways that connect the middle ear to the nose. Normally these tubes equalize pressure inside and outside the ear. But a child's eustachian tubes are narrower and shorter than those of an adult. This makes it easier for fluid to get trapped in the middle ear when the eustachian tubes dysfunction or become blocked during a cold.

Treatment

Many physicians recommend the use of an antibiotic (a drug that kills bacteria) when there is an active middle ear infection. If a patient is experiencing pain, the physician may also recommend a pain reliever. Following the physician's ear infection treatment instructions is very important. Once started, the antibiotic should be taken until it is finished. Most physicians will have the patient return for a follow-up examination to see if the infection has cleared.

Most ear infections clear on their own in just a few days — and antibiotics won't help an infection caused by a virus. In fact, about 80 percent of children with acute otitis media recover without antibiotics, according to the AAP and AAFP. If your child is uncomfortable, the doctor may recommend an over-the-counter pain reliever such as acetaminophen (Tylenol, others) or ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin, others). If your child doesn't have drainage from the ear or ear tubes, prescription eardrops containing a local anesthetic may be an option, too. The drops won't cure the infection, but they may relieve pain.

Antibiotics are specific chemical substances derived from or produced by living organisms that are capable of inhibiting the life processes of other organisms. Penicillins are a group of closely related antibiotics used to treat a wide variety of bacterial infections occurring in the body.

Penicillin, the world's first antibiotic, was discovered by British scientist Alexander Fleming in 1928 on accident. The penicillins were the first antibiotics discovered as natural products from the mold Penicillium.

Over the years, this family of antibiotics has grown, and the antimicrobial activity has expanded. Today there are at least 20 kinds of penicillin antibiotics. However, despite the discovery of many new antibiotics, the penicillins have remained a primary choice for treatment of a wide variety of bacterial infections. They are used to treat ear, nose and throat infections, respiratory and urinary tract infections, prostate infections, and certain sexually transmitted diseases.

Penicillins disadvantages:

acid lability - most of these drugs are destroyed by gastric acid
short duaration of action - because of this short half-life, the penicillins must be administered at short intervals, usually every 4 hours
lack of activity against most Gram-negative organisms
drug hypersensivity - about 10% of population has allergy
many patients experience GI upset
painful if given intramuscularly

Penicillins advantages:

bactericidal against sensitive strains
relatively nontoxic
have excellent tissue penetration
efficacious in the treatment of infections
relatively inexpensive in comparison with other antibiotics.

Newer penicillins are resistant to stomach acid, such as penicillin V, or have a broader spectrum, such as ampicillin and amoxicillin.

Classification of Penicillins

There are 4 classes of penicillins, based upon their ability to kill various types of bacteria. From narrow to broad range of effectiveness they include:

Natural Penicillins (Penicillin G, Procaine, Penicillin G, Penicillin V, Benzathine). The natural penicillins were the first agents in the penicillin family to be introduced for clinical use. The natural penicillins are based on the original penicillin-G structure. They are effective against gram-positive strains of streptococci, staphylococci, and some gram-negative bacteria such as meningococcus. Penicillin V is the drug of choice for the treatment of streptococcal pharyngitis. It is also useful for anaerobic coverage in patients with oral cavity infections.
Penicillinase-Resistant Penicillins (Cloxacillin, Dicloxacillin, Methicillin, Nafcillin, Oxacillin). Methicillin was the first member of this group, followed by oxacillin, nafcillin, cloxacillin and dicloxacillin. The penicillinase-resistant penicillins have a more narrow spectrum of activity than the natural penicillins. Their antimicrobial efficacy is aimed directly against penicillinase-producing strains of gram-positive cocci, particularly Staphylococcal species and these drugs are sometimes called anti-staphylococcal penicillins.
Aminopenicillins (Ampicillin, Amoxicillin, Bacampicillin). The aminopenicillins were the first penicillins discovered to be active against gram-negative bacteria (such as E. coli and H. influenzae). Aminopenicillins are acid-resistant so administered orally. Orally administered amoxicillin and ampicillin are used primarily to treat mild infections such as otitis media, sinusitis, bronchitis, urinary tract infections and bacterial diarrhea. Amoxicillin is the agent of choice for the treatment of otitis media.
Extended Spectrum Penicillins (sometimes called anti-pseudomonal penicillins). Extended Spectrum Penicillins include both alpha-carboxypenicillins (carbenicillin and ticarcillin) and acylaminopenicillins (piperacillin, azlocillin, and mezlocillin). These agents have similar spectrums of activity as the aminopenicillins but with additional activity against several gram negative organisms of the family Enterobacteriaceae, including many strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Like the aminopenicillins, these agents are susceptible to inactivation by beta-lactamases. These agents may be used alone or in combination with Aminoglycosides.

Mode of action

All penicillin derivatives produce their bacteriocidal effects by inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis. Penicillins prevent bacteria from using a substance that is necessary for the maintenance of the bacteriaТs outer cell wall. Unable to use this substance for cell wall maintenance, the bacteria swell, rupture, assume unusual shapes, and finally die.

The penicillins may be bactericidal (kill the bacteria) or bacteriostatic (stop the growth of bacteria). They are bactericidal against sensitive microorganisms provided there is an adequate concentration of penicillin in the body. An inadequate concentration of penicillin may produce bacteriostatic activity, which may or may not control the infection.

Conditions treated with penicillins, indications & uses

Penicillins may be used to treat infections such as urinary tract infections, septicemia, meningitis, intra-abdominal infection, gonorrhea, syphilis, pneumonia, respiratory infections, ear, nose and throat infections, skin and soft tissue infections. Examples of infectious microorganisms (bacteria) that may respond to penicillin therapy include gonococci, staphylococci, streptococci, and pneumococci.

Penicillins are used to prevent bacterial infection before, during and after surgery and to prevent Group A streptococcus ("strep") infections in people with a history of rheumatic heart disease.

Most penicillins work best when taken on an empty stomach (either one hour before meals or two hours after) with an unce glass of water. The water helps prevent the medicine from irritating the delicate lining of the esophagus and stomach. However, some types of penicillin can be taken on either a full or empty stomach. These include amoxicillin, penicillin V, and the tablet form of bacampicillin.

Penicillins work best when there is a constant amount circulating in the body. So it's important not to miss a dose. Also, it's best to take doses at evenly spaced intervals, both day and night.

Side effects

Although most penicillins are safe for the majority of people, some people may experience side effects.

Allergic or hypersensitivity reactions are thought to be the most frequently occurring side effect. An estimated 3-10% of the general population are allergic to penicillin. Once an individual is allergic to one penicillin, he or she is most likely allergic to all of the penicillins. Those allergic to penicillin also have a higher incidence of allergy to the cephalosporin antibiotics.

The most serious allergic reaction is anaphylaxis, a severe allergic reaction that can cause skin rash, hives, itching, difficulty breathing, shock, and unconsciousness. An early sign of anaphylaxis is a feeling of warmth and flushing. If any of these occurs, the medicine should be stopped and emergency help sought immediately. Anaphylactic shock occurs more frequently after parenteral administration but can occur with oral use.

Other most common side effects are mild diarrhea, vomiting, headache, vaginal itching and discharge, sore mouth or tongue, or white patches in the mouth or on the tongue. These problems usually go away as the body adjusts to the drug and do not require medical treatment unless they continue or they are bothersome. Occasionally, certain types of penicillin may cause the tongue to darken or discolor. This condition is temporary and will go away when the medicine is stopped.

On rare occasions some types of penicillin may cause severe abdominal or stomach cramps, pain, or bloating or severe or bloody diarrhea. Other rare side effects include fever, increased thirst, severe nausea or vomiting, unusual tiredness or weakness, weight loss, seizures, or unusual bleeding or bruising.

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Bacteria are microorganisms that are not visible for naked eye. These small organisms form clusters to cause various infections. Good news for the mankind is that not all bacteria are harmful. Less than 1% of bacteria cause infections but these infections lead to malfunctioning of human organs. The main problem is that these bacteria reproduce quickly in your body under favorable conditions.

There are several varieties of bacteria that flourish well in certain parts of the body. The causes for these bacterial infections are not known and how they can affect people in urban areas is still a mystery. Thanks to medical science, there are antibacterial treatments for bacterial infections. By taking these treatments at right times, you can be sure that you are safe and healthy.

The three common areas that are prone to bacterial infections are the respiratory tract, urinary tract, and digestive tract. Several reasons may be given for each of these bacterial infections. However, irrespective of the health measures you take, almost every human being suffers from atleast one type of bacterial infections. Respiratory infections are sometimes unnoticed and the victim can recover easily with the help of the efforts taken by the self repair system in the human body. However, certain serious infections must be treated by appropriate person.

People who don't eat foods in healthy environment are more prone to bacterial infections in the digestive tract. When you leave your cake under the sun during your picnic, you are exposing yourself to bacteria such as staphylococcus which is carried by flies. These bacteria emit toxins that damage your digestive tract.

As a result, you may experience vomiting, nausea and other symptoms. Sometimes, infection may be too heavy that peptic ulcer may be caused. Bacterial infections in digestive tracts are treated with the help of antibiotics.

Bacterial infections in urinary tract are highly found in women than in men. This is because of the female design in which anus is close to the genitals. Bacterial infections in the urethra directly result in infections in the urinary tract. Sexually active women catch this type of infection more easily by engaging with several men. Men are also prone to bacterial infections in the urinary tract because of not emptying urinary bladder completely.

There are treatments for this type of bacterial infections, but if you take proper personal care, you can avoid infection of urinary tract.

Bacterial infections in membranes that cover spinal chord and brain are most commonly found in children less than two years though bacteria can affect even older people. This infection leads to several deaths each year. Commonly called as bacterial meningitis, this can be prevented by proper vaccination during childhood. Bacterial infections in other parts of the body may spread to the bloodstream causing sepsis.

For elderly people, this causes malfunction of vital organs. If sepsis not treated quickly, it may even lead to death. For every type of bacterial infection, there are antibiotics. By taking these antibiotics under doctor advice, you can combat the infection and cure illness.

Antibiotics are frequently used to treat acne. This article gives a profile of some of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics for acne.

If you've ever had a sinus infection or have one now your first thought may be to get some antibiotics from your doctor or ENT (ear, nose and throat) specialist. For many years doctors prescribed antibiotics for sinus infections routinely, even though little was known about antibiotics and sinus infections but now many doctors no longer prescribe them.

One of the reasons is that not too long ago researchers in Switzerland evaluated nine studies of 2500 adults who had used antibiotics for sinus infections. They were quite surprised to find that the drugs did not speed up the patient's recoveries. This was true even for patients who had severe sinus infections that produced green mucous.

Even patients with these severe sinus infections who did not take antibiotics improved just as fast as those with the antibiotics. Although many doctors now think that most sinus infections are caused by viruses or fungi after significant studies, so antibiotics would not work anyway for these infections. Another problem is that for those rare patients who do have a bacterial infection, it's not clear that the antibiotics can reach the sinus cavities.

The general rule has since been not to take antibiotics unless the sinus infection lasts more than a week or more and involves facial pain, fever and/or pus. But it's still not known if it will help the sinuses in this case.

They also recommend not going to your doctor unless you have multiple symptoms or have intense pain. It's better to try natural sinus treatments at home because it's likely the doctor will suggest you do that anyway if he/she is informed about these studies and more current protocol. Most would prefer not to prescribe antibiotics anyway because of the possibility of the growth of drug-resistant bugs which eventually would make the antibiotics useless to anybody for any reason.

If you do have a sinus infection now, know that antibiotics are not likely to help. And if you don't have one now, take some time to do some research and find out what you can do naturally to prevent and/or treat a sinus infection or sinusitis in the event you come down with one. There are many ways to prevent them and some good ways to treat sinus symptoms naturally that don't involve drugs, medications or supplements. In any case it's always good to check with your doctor about any new treatment approaches you start.

The advent of antibiotics in modern medicine had empowered and gave medical practitioners an upper hand in the fight against bacterial infection. Innovations in medical science and technology have allowed physicians to improve their effectiveness in saving the lives of people.

However, the “antibiotic miracle” is also the reason why new strains of antiobiotic-resistant bacteria have emerged. Unsupervised use of antibiotics have allowed certain bacteria to adapt to the active ingredients and develop resistance. These powerful strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria present a menacing threat and danger to the health and lives of the general public. Developing “next generation” antibiotics has become a formidable challenge for those in the medical and pharmaceutical professions.

What is a Bacteria?

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that have the ability to reproduce through cell-division. These are minute living organisms that looks like balls, rods, or spirals when seen through the microscope and can grow on any non-living surface which may not necessarily pose any danger to your health. Some bacteria are even beneficial to one's health such as Lactobacillus Acidophilus. This particular bacterium helps in the digestion of food in your stomach and fights some disease-causing organisms. It can also give some nutrients to the body. In fact, some bacteria are being used to make health foods like yogurt and cheese.

But there are certain strains of bacteria that when they get inside your body, you will become ill. This is called bacterial infection. These wide variety of bacteria brings about infections which range from mild to life-threatening diseases. Bacterial meningitis is an example of bacterial infection that needs immediate medical attention. Infectious bacteria, like Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and E.coli, can mutate rapidly and produce chemicals called toxins that can destroy the cells and tissues in your body. Severe gastrointestinal problems from contaminated food is caused by E.coli while gonorrhea is brought about by gonococcus bacterium. Some infections are considered contagious such as strep throat and tuberculosis. However, infections of the heart valves (endocarditis) or bone (osteomyelitis) are not considered transmissible. Common bacterial infections include pneumonia, ear infections, diarrhea, urinary tract infections, and skin infections.

Risk Factors

Everywhere you go, there are a multitude of microscopic invaders which include bacteria, viruses, parasites, and other infectious organisms that can be found in the air that you breathe, in drinking water, or in the water that you use for washing the dishes, and that which you use in taking a bath. It can also be found in the soil, your plants and pets, on your food, and even in your own body. Although every human being is exposed to these countless bacteria, some of us are at higher risk of infection than others. Aside from a weakened immune system, there are also other risk factors for bacterial infection and illness.

Age – Younger people are more susceptible to bacterial infections caused by Escherichia, better known as E.coli while older people are at an increased risk of lower respiratory tract infections from a bacteria strain called Streptococcus Pneumoniae.

Nutrition – Malnutrition affects functions of the immune system. A balanced diet of nutritious foods, minerals, and vitamins is needed by the body to keep it healthy and strong against infections.

Genetic Predisposition – Research reveals that some people are genetically susceptible to infections but hopefully, with the use of genetic testing, researchers can come up with drug therapies to target genetic defects.

Antibiotics and Bacteria

Antibiotics are powerful medicines that stop bacterial infections by killing the invading bacteria or stopping it from growing without harming the host. The effectiveness of antibiotics may vary depending on the severity of the illness, site of infection, immune status of host, and the resistance factors of bacteria.

Different antibiotics work in different ways. While Vancomycin and Penicillin discourage formation of bacterial cell walls, other antibiotics such as Erythromycin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol prevent protein synthesis. Moreover, other antibiotics like Sulfa drugs inhibit bacterial metabolism while Ciprofloxacin and Rifampin interferes with DNA synthesis. Polymixin B interferes with cell membrane permeability.

Prevention and Treatment

In order to protect yourself from getting these infections and illnesses, you must first understand the distinction between the two. Infection comes first before you get the disease. Infection happens when these bacteria or other microorganisms enter your body and begin to reproduce by mutation, damaging the cells and tissues in the process, thus, causing you to be ill. Your immune system begins to respond to infection by allowing the white blood cells and antibodies to work against whatever is causing the infection. So, avoiding areas where you could possibly get infected is a must.

There are several practical ways to prevent infections from happening, thus, staying disease-free. Simple regular hand washing with soap and water before meals, after coughing and sneezing, after using the toilet can rid you of most germs. In the absence of soap and water, there are alcohol-based hand-sanitizing gels that are available for protection. Vaccines are proven to be effective in warding off a lot of disease. Though vaccines are given as early as childhood, there is still a need for adults to be vaccinated for new illnesses. Medicines such as anti-parasitic drugs can protect you from getting malaria while travelling. Over-the-counter drugs such as antibiotic creams can minimize infections due to minor cuts and injuries.

What Are Antibiotics

Always consult medical professionals for advice. Your doctor can perform diagnostic tests to find out if you're infected, the seriousness of the infection, and how best to treat that infection. Finally, always maintain a healthy immune profile to reduce susceptibility to infections and diseases.